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ABSTRACTThe explanatory potential of four forms of expectancy theory with additive and multiplicative expectancy terms and linear and nonlinear valence functions were contrasted. A behavioral decision‐making theory approach was used when 101 subjects were asked to make 128 hypothetical job‐choice decisions. More than 25,800 decisions under a within‐subjects framework were analyzed. Results indicate that the majority (83 percent) of subjects employed additive or multiplicative expectancy models with linear valence functions. However, the predictive efficacy of the expectancy theory model was improved for 17 percent of the subjects when nonlinear valence terms were introduced. The findings imply that different functional forms of expectancy theory may be needed to model individuals' decision‐making processes.

Group projects are an important component of higher education, and the use of peer assessment of students' individual contributions to group projects has increased. The researchers employed an expectancy theory approach and an experimental design in a field setting to investigate conditions that influence students' motivation to rate their peers' contributions to team projects. Two questionnaires were also developed and tested by the researchers. This research found that rating format and rating frequency significantly interacted to influence student motivation and their perceptions of their team. Research findings reveal peer assessment to be a complex process in need of further study. Two peer assessment instruments and peer assessment training materials are provided along with suggestions for future research.

Expectancy theory is applied to construct a conceptual framework and identify key factors that motivate bloggers to create and maintain a weblog. A questionnaire was distributed to 177 bloggers. Our research findings suggest that bloggers with high motivational rewards have the highest
levels of blogging intention, and that a blogger with higher blogging intention is willing to invest more time in maintaining their blog and posts more articles on their blog. Pouring out feelings and regularly connecting with friends and acquaintances were the two most important motivational
rewards. Unlike news reporters, intrinsic rewards are more important than extrinsic rewards for bloggers. For the bloggers studied here, blogging is a reliable tool to ensure that people they care about have an easy way of keeping in contact with them.

The inconsistent findings of prior studies in expectancy theory are examined with reference to various logical and methodological issues. A comprehensive test of the theory is proposed in broadening the base of the behavioral alternatives available to the individual in the work situation. A method is suggestedfor incorporating negative as well as positive instrumentalities and acts. Nine alternative models are tested, including the expectancy variables, additive, multiplicative, and combined versions. The findings of the study do not support the theory as a predictor of effort and performance, and provide moderate support to the theory as a predictor of total job satisfaction. None of the predictor models is found to be superior to any of the others. The findings confirm those of other recent studies, and suggest that the theory may explain only a limited portion of behavior on the job.

Purpose
We apply expectancy theory to advance a conceptual framework which identifies factors that motivate and affect the adoption of supplier development activities.


Design/methodology/approach
We conduct a comprehensive literature review to identify salient contributions and conceptual gaps within prior supplier development studies. These conceptual gaps motivate our use of expectancy theory and the broader management literature to develop a conceptual framework of supplier development adoption.


Findings
Our study results in the development of a two-stage conceptual framework in which two behavioral constructs – supplier development expectancy and valence – play an important role in mediating the effects of activity-, firm-, interfirm-, and environment-level factors on the adoption of supplier development activities. Accordingly, we advance eleven testable propositions that underlie the logical development of our framework.


Research limitations/implications
Our application of expectancy theory facilitates the integration of constructs culled from disparate theories into a cohesive conceptual framework. Highlighting the central role of motivational force, our conceptual development provides a behavioral explanation for the indirect effects of activity-, firm-, interfirm-, and environment-level factors on supplier development adoption.


Practical implications
We advance a set of factors associated with three successive stages of the supplier development planning process – partner selection, activity selection, and scope selection – that managers should consider when adopting a supplier development activity.


Originality/value
In contrast to prior research, which largely draws from economic or strategic theories, we employ a behavioral approach to advance a novel set of factors that influence supplier development adoption.

AbstractThe degree to which individuals are motivated to apply themselves depends in part on how far they expect to be able to achieve given goals. This study, based on interviews of local government administrators in Botswana, not only stresses the importance of expectancy in motivation but reports the importance of altruistic goals among these administrators. Among those interviewed there was a strong desire to advance their own careers, both by developing themselves in the job they currently hold, and by advancing through the organizational hierarchy. Employees, however, were also anxious to accomplish concrete objectives in their current jobs and thus to contribute to the development of the nation. Here unless officials have the expectancy of being able to achieve these goals their motivation is affected. Thus emphasis is placed in this article on the need to supplement traditional attention to pay and promotion as devices to improve motivation with a concern to remove road blocks to development. The enquiry thus strengthens the case for the performance improvement programme of the United Nations.

The significance of employee motivation as the panacea of productivity in organizations is illustrated bythe volumes of literature on motivation and human productivity. For example, social theorists are of theview that employees are motivated by their needs and they develop through and in relationship withothers (Dawson, 1993). The implication of the preceding statement is that when there is synergybetween employees' needs and organizational needs, they – employees – will be more acquiescent toproductive tendencies than when their needs are not gratified. Invariably, the balancing of employees'labour with their social needs and expectations is necessary in all organizations, and consequentlyVaida (2003) states that incentives are used to reward outstanding performance and to sustainefficiency in work processes. Furthermore, Hoy and Miskel (1991:191) concur that incentives includemoney, power and idyllic investments as well as general incentives that are non-material. However, anover-emphasis on incentives and monetary gain overlooks the fact that people make decisions abouttheir own behaviour. Boje and Rosile (2004) thus conclude that motivation theories – which accentuateincentives more than other motivators – incorporate the death wish since social controlinstrumentalities, valences, and need strengths are manipulated by managers to induce employees'productivity. In addition, the "one shoe fits all" approach of giving incentives may not have the desiredeffect because of the uniqueness of employees' needs, personalities and behaviour.